You may NOT use any outside materials at all. If you use any outside materials in a response, that response will earn a 0.
This essay consists with two parts, which is two short essay(each of them is one page) and one long essay(three pages).
Part I: Short-Essay (40%)
Please answer 2 (two) of the following questions in a one-page response for each. For each response, you must analyze at least one primary source and use evidence from at least one lecture and one passage from the textbook.

(1) Copernicus and Galileo were both important mathematicians who had a significant impact on the natural philosophy of their time, but neither writer desired completely to overturn the religious principles on which knowledge was based. Choosing either Copernicus or Galileo, discuss how the author advanced new ideas but also sought to place them within existing structures of authority and belief. Be sure to define the term, “natural philosophy,” in your response.

(2) Francesco Petrarch is often described as the “Father of Italian Humanism.” Why? Be sure to define the term, “humanism,” in your response.

(3) Both Anselm and René Descartes used rational thinking to prove fundamental concepts. What did they seek to prove, how did they set up their arguments, and what do the differences tell us about the trajectory from early scholasticism to the natural philosophy of the seventeenth century? Be sure to define the terms, “scholasticism” and “natural philosophy,” in your response. [primary sources from lectures are fair-game for this response.]

(4) Although many works throughout the Middle Ages and early modern period praised kingship or individual kings, in Louis XIV’s memoirs, we hear the voice of the king himself. What does this first-person perspective add or change in understanding the king’s role in early modern Europe?

(5) In the early modern period, numerous people were brought up on charges for heresy or consorting with the devil. Choosing either Alice Driver or Suzanne Gaudry, discuss why these procedures were recorded, the basis for the accusations, how the authorities sought to prove or demonstrate them, the response of the defendant. What does the process tell us about religion and justice in early modern Europe?

(6) What did the discussion with Professor Nicole Archambeau add to your understanding of her book, Souls under Siege? [here, you should use Souls under Siege instead of a primary source.]

Part II: Essay (60%)
Please answer 1 (one) of the following questions in a three-page response. In your essay, you must analyze at least three primary sources and use evidence from at least two lectures and one passage from the textbook:

(1) Throughout this course, we have encountered a number of authors who have had to justify their reasons for writing their texts. Using three examples, of which one must come from the Middle Ages and one from the early modern period, explore the ways in which (1) these writers established themselves as authoritative figures in the subjects on which they wrote and (2) discuss the reasons why these authors had to justify their writings in the first place. What does a comparison of their concerns and methods over time tell us about continuities or changes in European society from the Middle Ages to the early modern period?

(2) Identify and compare three groups who were seen as outsiders in the period from medieval to early modern Europe. How, why, and by whom were these groups targeted for exclusion? Were there means through which they could try to gain acceptance among the majority community? Why or why not? What does the exclusion of these groups tell us about European society in this period?

(3) With the rise of Protestantism and European colonial expansion in the early modern period, Europeans had to grapple with competing ideas concerning Christian community. What were the models that Catholics and Protestants adopted for their understandings of this community and the right behavior of its members? What were the chief sources of authority to which they turned to justify their positions?

(4) The centuries from Charlemagne to Louis XIV saw an evolution in both ideas concerning political authority and the practice of kingship in the European sphere. How did ideas about the king’s role in relationship to church authorities, the nobility, and common subjects change over time, and what accounts for these changing notions of a successful king over the course of the period?